Aquinas’s Method of Medieval Scholasticism
The medieval era (400–1500) started with the downfall of the Roman Empire and eventually came to an end with the rise of the Renaissance. Specifically, the medieval era witnessed three transitional periods in time. The Dark Ages (400–1000) took place right after the Roman Empire’s downfall, then the high middle ages followed (1000–1300), and finally, the late middle ages (1300–1500). Notably, Christian philosophers of medieval times took Greek thought into account and thought especially highly of Plato and Aristotle. Accordingly, Thomas Aquinas, a theologian from the Dominican order, expressed the Christian thought in terms of Aristotelian philosophy. Hence, the discussion will tackle theology, religion, and philosophy. Thus, we should illustrate the main aspect of each concept. Namely, theology is considered an attempt of organizing the doctrines of religion in a system; religion is a form of expression to perceive reality; philosophy is an attempt to make out a reasonable account of the human experience and the world we live in.
This paper will elaborate on medieval scholasticism in the light of the era and relate it to the thought of the Aristotelian Thomas Aquinas. The medieval times were hard times for philosophy to thrive, but the high middle ages noted the emergence of medieval universities. They later gave birth to scholasticism that linked both philosophy and theology after many contributions of different scholars (of whom we will mainly concentrate on Thomas Aquinas) that paved the way.
Philosophy in the Medieval Times
Throughout the years, philosophy had been centred on Greek thinkers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. However, the philosophical centre took a turn as Christianity dominated after the fall of the Roman Empire. Notably, that era is named medieval philosophy after the medieval period of European history. Furthermore, the Christian culture brought about intellectual traditions that opposed Greek thought. Accordingly, the Bible stood clear about its main themes of a monotheistic God, life after death, and expanding the kingdom of God. Consequently, the Christian emperors saw through the destruction of all pagan temples that presumably conflicted with the Christian message, shutting down schools of philosophy. On the other hand, Islam was developing a philosophical tradition by blending Aristotle’s thought with that of Plato under the hands of the Arab philosophers, Avicenna (980–1037) and Averroes (1126–1198), which later evoked the interest of the Christian West.
Thus, philosophy took a positive turn in the high middle ages (1000–1300), where medieval universities emerged as the centre of learning and in turn created a new philosophical method. Moreover, the population increased, political cohesion was established, and intellectual thought was revived (Fieser). In turn, the intellectual thought carried out by employing the new philosophical method named scholasticism, which systematically blends philosophy and theology, took over.
Medieval Scholasticism
Scholasticism is the teaching method that dominated the schools of Western Europe. Moreover, the Scholastic universities were awarded degrees in philosophy, theology, medicine, and law. Eventually, philosophy established many fields that came to be independent later, such as chemistry, mathematics, linguistics, politics, biology, economics, and psychology. Notably, philosophy had main branches such as Epistemology (the study of meaning), Logic (rules needed to think carefully and confidently), Metaphysics (the study of applying reason to things that go beyond us), Ethics (the study of what is considered right and wrong), Political philosophy (a study of how we form communities and is considered a branch of Ethics), and Aesthetics (the study of art and beauty and how humans react to them). Accordingly, Students of the Scholastic universities were taught to argue from reason, experience, and authority as noted by scholastic thinkers that preceded them.
Despite the schoolmen being strongly committed Christians in the first place who believed that understanding could only be achieved by faith, their main learning sources were the texts of the pagan Greeks and the great works of theologian thinkers such as Aquinas’ Summa Theologica, a medieval disputation with questions followed by articles, objections, and then replies. Aquinas investigated the existence of God through what could be known about the creatures starting with the cause to explain the effect. Later, the schoolmen were established as teachers of philosophy and theology; they dealt with many intellectual questions using the philosophical method investigated through Aquinas’ writings and other scholars such as himself. Specifically, the medieval scholasticism technique was formal as it starts with the student stating a thesis (argument or truth), followed by a proof using scripture or magisterium (a teaching of the Roman Catholic Church). Then, the student would oppose the opposite position of their chosen thesis with an authoritative-based opposition. Finally, the student concludes with a hypothetical elaboration.
The briefly mentioned new interest, from which such a philosophical method originated, was evoked by the Arab philosophers’ attempt to blend the thoughts of Aristotle with Plato’s. It was led by Albert the Great in the Christian West. His student was Thomas Aquinas.
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, born in 1225 near Naples, received his education at The Benedictine Abbey of Monte Cassino, attended the University of Naples, and entered the Dominican order against his family’s wishes. Nevertheless, he continued his studies at the University of Paris and took an interest in the works of Aristotle, eventually becoming an Aristotelian. Additionally, Aquinas embraced the Aristotelian Principle that knowledge begins with sense-perception. Thomas Aquinas’ philosophy, known as Thomism, greatly appealed to the Roman Catholic tradition. Notably, Aquinas was called Doctor Angelicus, which is a Latin phrase that means Angelic Doctor.
Since Aquinas is also considered one of the most influential philosophers in the Western philosophical tradition, his works influenced countless philosophers and intellectuals throughout the world. Notably, Aquinas’ thought tackled many aspects of philosophy, such as his contributions to theology and philosophy, law, and the five short arguments demonstrating the existence of God. Moreover, Aquinas modelled a relation between theology and philosophy that they complement one another: each is allowed an independent view of the other, and each discipline can perfect the other in content or by inspiring those who practice each discipline to acquire higher intellectual levels. Nevertheless, Aquinas’ writings on law were virtue-centred with extended discussions about the relevance of happiness and life passions, as well as the necessity of will for moral life. Ultimately, the five short arguments demonstrate the existence of God by investigating the cause to explain the effect. In other words, Aquinas did not explain God by his transcendence, but rather by what could be known about the creation. Thus, his works caused the schoolmen to investigate the cause to explain the effect and to take Aristotle’s views into account, which, in turn, resulted in the philosophical method of medieval scholasticism.
In summary, medieval philosophy developed throughout the years to shape the medieval scholasticism method. However, medieval times were not tolerant of philosophical views, especially those of the Greeks. Nevertheless, theology, philosophy, and religion came to co-exist in the teachings of medieval scholars as medieval universities evolved and investigated the different branches of philosophy. Notably, Thomas Aquinas was one of the main influential philosophers that pursued Aristotle’s teachings and applied the principles in his works which later inspired many of those who came after him. Accordingly, the schoolmen formed their philosophical method based on Aquinas’ thought and philosophy among other scholars. Hence, medieval scholasticism.
